Preliminary Coursework Film - Fired

180 Degree Rule

180 Degree Rule

The 180 degree rule is the rule which dictates that you must keep your camera positioned within a field of 180 degrees - a straight line. If you break this rule, it can confuse your audience, making it seem like characters and objects have changed positions and that motion is moving in the opposite direction than makes sense.

However, this rule is more of a guideline and as long as the audience has their bearings, and doesn't notice it, it is okay to break the rule once in a while in order to create a certain effect.

Below is a video which explains the 180 degree rule in detail:




Breaking the Rule


Among the Mortals (A Scene) from Rob Vogt on Vimeo.

The short clip above constantly breaks the 180 degree rule in order to create a sense of confusion and disorganisation mirroring the emotional state of the young girl.




Ask The Spirits II

Sound

Diegetic Sound

Diegetic sounds are original sounds that have not been edited in and come from a source within the scene, for example footsteps, characters speaking, a radio, television etc. The characters are able to hear these sounds.

Example:

The Mos Eisley Cantina scene in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope has diagetic sound in it, emanating from the band playing the famous Cantina song, composed by John Williams. Here, the characters can hear the music being played and so it is a diagetic sound.

Non-Diagetic Sound

Non Diagetic sounds are sounds which have been edited into the scene for effect, do not come from a source within the scene and so the characters of the scene cannot hear it. For example, the film's score.

Example:

In Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho, the famous shower scene uses non diagetic sound as the harsh string piece plays over Marion being attacked. Neither Marion nor her attacker can hear the musical accompaniment, it is used solely to enhance the viewers' experience, and so it is non-diagetic sound.




Synchronous Sound

Synchronous Sound is that which appears to be matched to certain movements occurring in the scene, as when footsteps correspond to feet walking.

Example:

In Groundhog Day, synchronous sound is used when Bill Murray's character wakes up. This sound comes from the alarm clock by the bed and matches up to the alarm clock going off, so is synchronous sound.




Asynchronous Sound

Asynchronous Sound is when the sound is, deliberately or otherwise, not matched up with the action occurring onscreen.

Example:

In this clip, asynchronous sound is used to create a sense of confusion and delirium.




Sound Effects

Sound effects are sounds used in film, television or theatre scenes to add realism. They are not usually part of the scene originally and are "artificial" sounds edited in afterwards.

Example:




Sound Motif

A sound motif is a recurring sound effect which can be associated with a certain character, setting, situation or idea.

Example:

In Fritz Lang's M, a sound motif, a distinct whistle of In the Hall of the Mountain King, is played everytime Peter Lorre's character comes onscreen. This is used cleverly as it builds suspense amongst the audience, waiting for the worst case scenario to occur.




Sound Bridge

A sound bridge is when a scene begins with an overlap of dialogue from the previous scene or vice versa.

Example:

A few sound bridges are used in The Wachowski Brothers film The Matrix. In this scene, there is a sound bridge linking Neo and Trinity's conversation and the scene where Neo wakes up.




Dialogue

Dialogue is the most basic type of sound. It is one or more person speaking aloud in a scene.

Voice-Over

A voice-over is where dialogue, often from a character's perspective, is placed over other shots.

Example:

One film which makes brilliant use of voice-over is Mary Haddon's 2000 masterpiece American Psycho. We learn of Patrick Bateman's interior thoughts and reflections on both his mental status and on what is going on in the world around him.




Direct Address,

Direct address in film is when the character in the film address the audience of the film, thus breaking the fourth wall.

Example:

At the end of Ferris Bueller's Day Off, Ferris uses direct address to offer his words of advice to the audience, breaking the fourth wall in the process.




Sound Mixing

Sound Mixing is when multiple sounds are combined into one or more channels.

Sound Perspective

Sound perspective is when you can sense that there is sound coming from a different space and distance than the subject. It adds to the sense of realism and depth in the film.

Example:

In this scene, sound perspective is used for a number of reasons. Firstly, to develop the sense of realism present in the film and, secondly, to create a sense of tension throughout the scene.




Sound Tracks

The Soundtrack of a film is the sounds (usually musical, but also, to an extent, dialogue and sound effects) used in the film.

Score

The score of a film is music, usually completely instrumental, composed exclusively for the use in the film. The score is non-diagenic, as the characters can never hear the score.

Example:

One of the best scores from last year was Hans Zimmer's beautiful Interstellar score, which gave me a sense of nationalistic pride.




Sting

The sting is a musical phrase for when the music includes an increase in pitch or volume. In film, they can be used in any genre, however have in recent years become associated with horror films and are often used combined with a jump scare.




Ambient Sound

Ambient sound is the term used to describe sounds which are naturally in the background of a scene. Often associated with water, birds, wind etc.

Mise En Scène

Production Design

Production Design is the overall "look" and visual "feel" of the film. Production Designers have one of the key creative roles in the creation of motion pictures and television. Working directly with the director and producer, they must select the settings and style to visually tell the story.

Example:

A film that is often cited for its great production design is the groundbreaking 1920 silent horror The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. At times nauseating, the sets and costume design truly help to place the audience in Cesare's shoes: the jagged architecture and sharp colours signifying his internal state of mind.

Location

Location is where the film is taking place and where it is set.

Set Design

All the scenery, furniture and props the audience sees at a production of a play make up the set design. The set designer's job is to design these physical surroundings in which the action will take place in a way that will reflect the character's emotional state (see Cabinet's set design above) or the tone of the film.

Example:

One of my favourite examples of set design is quite a simple one - that is the set design of The Graduate. The stark contrast of Ben and Mrs. Robinson's lives are conveyed through comparing the set design of each character's housing. The set design in The Graduate also conveys the personality and emotional states of both characters. Everything that surrounds Ben seems to be pointless and over the top. For his birthday, he is given a diving suit - again, pointless. Mrs. Robinson, on the other hand, is surrounded by decadent, lavish items: arty alcohol bottles, well designed staircases and exotic plants. Take a look at the two examples of set design below: one from Ben's house and the other from Mrs. Robinson's.

Costume and Makeup

Costume and makeup are perhaps the most basic aspect of Mise En Scene. They are what the characters are wearing. These must fit the setting and tone of the rest of the film - for example you cannot have a person in a 1950's-style soiree wearing fake tan and a pair of skinny jeans.

Example;

In Annie Hall, Diane Keaton wears the titular character's trademark khaki trousers, white shirt, black waistcoat and comically oversized tie. This influenced women's style for a short period with women trying to achieve the "Annie Hall look". Her style of costume perfectly reflects her quirky and slightly offbeat personality, someone perfect for a man like Woody Allen.

Props

Props are objects used by actors onscreen, outside from furniture. Practically, a prop is anything movable on set.

Lighting

-Available 

Available lighting is when you film without adding artificial lighting, instead using only what is already available where you are shooting (for example: the sun and moon).

Example:

-Artificial

Artificial lighting is when you shoot your film adding lights, usually plain but sometimes coloured to achieve a certain effect. This gives a filmmaker and DoP more control over how the shot looks and the tone that is created.

Example: 

-Keylight

The Keylight is the first and arguably most important stage of lighting the DoP will set up when lighting a shot. The Keylight is used to highlight the form and overall dimension of the subject.

-Fill 

A fill light is a supplementary light chiefly used to lighten shadows.

Example:

-Backlighting

When the lights for a shot derive from the rear of the set, which throws the objects in the foreground into semidarkness or silhouette.

Example:

-Set

Set lighting is simply lighting that is done on-set rather than using natural, available lighting. 

Colour Design

Colour Design is the designing of a colour palette to be used in your film to create tension, excitement, a dreamlike quality and so much more. Colour Design is one of the most important creative aspects of filmmaking. 

Example:

In Drive, there is a complementary colour scheme throughout most of the film. Here, the complementary colour scheme is used to highlight how Shannon has become a victim of his situation, and the colour scheme of light teals and harsh oranges creates an almost dreamlike quality to the scene while still managing to accentuate the tragedy of the situation and heightening Driver's collected, almost cool, anger. 

Editing and Representation

Shot Reverse Shot

Shot reverse shot is a continuity editing technique which is often used to show conversations. A shot showing what the character is looking at followed by another, reversed shot from the character's or object's POV. This simulates characters looking at each other.

Example:

In Sam Raimi's 2002 blockbuster, Spider Man, the Shot Reverse Shot editing technique is used to show Dafoe's character searching for the "intruder" in his home. It's cleverly used as it keeps the audience in suspense.

Eyeline Match

The eyeline match relies on the audience's assumptions. This series of shots usually shows someone looking at something and then what exactly they are looking at and the angle they are looking at it from. In this way the auience can see exactly what the character is seeing and what the director wants them to see.

Example:

In Hitchcock's 1954 Rear Window starring Jimmy Stewart, the director makes use of eyeline matches throughout the film to show what Jeffries is seeing from his window. The shots are voyeuristic in nature and the repeated use of eyeline match puts the audience in Jeffries' shoes (or rather, cast).

Graphic Match (Match Cut)

The Match Cut is an editing technique in which a close up on one object is used, which then quickly becomes another object with similar compositional elements. It is used to establish a relationship between two shots.

Example:

Perhaps one of the most famous match cuts occurs in another Hitchcock film - Psycho, takes place just after Marion Crane is brutally stabbed to death while in the shower. As her blood washes away down the drain with the water, the camera slowly zooms in on just the drain itself. A graphic match cut is then used, as the center of the drain becomes the iris of the victim’s lifeless left eye.

Match On Action

The Match on Action cut is when two shot are connected together in which a character finishes off an action in the second shot that was started in the first one,

Example:

In the opening of Hot Fuzz, a series of Match on Action cuts are used to create a quickened, comedic pace.

Jump Cut

Jump cuts are used very often in film for a number of reasons, primarily for visual comedy or to convey the passage of  time.

Example:

In my favourite Wes Anderson film, The Royal Tenenbaums, the jump cut is employed in a very well edited, if disturbing scene where Richie attempts to commit suicide. Here it is used to convey the passage of a few minutes as Richie cuts his hair and shaves his beard. It is accelerating the time until Richie performs that inevitable act upon himself - suicide.

Crosscutting

Crosscutting is when two or more scenes are shot, then edited into each other so that the camera is constantly cutting between the scenes. This creates tension and is often used in dramas or thrillers for this exact reason.

Example:

In the original Jurassic Park, crosscutting is used to establish tension as Timmy climbs the fence. The camera cuts between him climbing the dormant electric fence and the control room, as the audience is wondering whether or not the fence will be turned on.

Cutaway

The Cutaway technique, not unlike Crosscutting, is used to show two events occurring side by side, with the camera often cutting between two scenes.

Example:

In Sidney Lumet's Dog Day Afternoon, cutaways are used in the various phone call scenes throughout the film. These are used to establish various relationships between Sonny and the other characters as well as to move the events of the film and to develop characters and create drama.

Insert

The Insert shot is one that occurs in the middle of a larger scene or shot, usually a close-up of some detail or object, that draws audience attention, provides specific information, or simply breaks up the film sequence.

Example:

In this shot, an insert shot is used to provide context and inform the audience what the character is reading in the book.

Dissolve

The dissolve is a transition from one shot to another where one shot is gradually revealed, and the shot previous gradually disappearing.

Example:

Prior to the New Age of American cinema, dissolves were used much more often than cuts to transition from shot to shot. These were particularly used in silent films as well as film noirs. Citizen Kane employs multiple dissolves throughout, helping to establish an almost dreamlike quality within it.

Cut

Perhaps the most basic of editing techniques is the cut. A Cut in film is the name for the sudden transition between two shots.

Example:

This was literally pulled from the top of my head. Trailers always cut together various scenes from the film they are previewing to showcase to the audience and so usually use these cuts to change the atmosphere, setting or characters of a shot/scene.

Wipe

The wipe is when one shot replaces another onscreen by travelling from one side of the screen to the other and hence "wiping" the shot it replaces offscreen.

Example:

Akira Kurosawa is well known for his use of the wipe transition in his films. He is cited as influencing George Lucas in the editing process of Star Wars, which is evident in the editing of the series. Below I have included two videos: one for a wipe used in Seven Samurai (Kurosawa) and one, a compilation of wipes from Star Wars  (Lucas)

Superimposition

Superimposition is when two images are shown, with one placed on top of the other.

Example:

In Hitchcock's 1960 masterpiece, Psycho, an image of Norma's skull is superimposed over Norman's face in a grimace. This is used to convey the idea that Norma and Norman are, in the end, essentially one and the same. This is also used to convey a sense of absolute finality to the film.

Long Take

A Long Take is a take which lasts considerably longer than the other takes in the film, or in film in general. Long takes can be used to achieve a number of effects: from dreamy to action packed.

Example:

One of the most famous long takes in modern cinema has to be the hallway fight scene in Oldboy. Here, the long take is used to create tension and to keep the action flowing as smoothly as possible, which it undoubtedly achieves as the audience is absorbed into the narrow hallway where the action is unfolding.

Short Take:

The short take is one which only lasts a few seconds. Usually filmmakers use this to establish a location from various points or, in slasher films, show the killer stalking his victim to build up tension.

Slow Motion

Slow motion is when whatever action is happening on camera is slowed down to achieve a certain look or effect on the audience. 

Example:

How can one mention Slow-mo in film without talking about the Wachowski's The Matrix? Their 1999 sci-fi action film arguably brought the slow-mo technique into filmmakers' inventories with Bullet Time. 

Ellipses

An ellipsis in film is when the film omits a section of the story that is either obvious enough for the public to fill in or concealed for a narrative purpose, such as suspense or mystery.

Post Production

Post production is a term that applies to every part of the filmmaking process after shooting and recording is complete.

Composition

Composition

What is Shot Composition?

In Film terms, shot composition refers to the organization of elements in a frame. Every image should have a single story to tell. The purpose of composition is to direct your viewer's eye to the central point or "story" in your scene. Regardless of the particular subject, composition of the frame is important. You want to present a picture to your audience that is unified, shows the relationship between the elements in the frame, and is aesthetically pleasing. Everything in a frame is important, not just the subject!

In this post, I aim to explain, give examples of different methods of shot composition and to explain and analyse why they have been used. 

Framing

The very broad term "framing" refers to the way a shot is composed, and the manner in which subjects and objects are surrounded ('framed') by the boundaries or perimeter of the film image, or by the use of a rectangle or enclosing shape (such as a door or hallway) within the film image; also, camera angles such as low-angle and high-angle shots contribute to the framing

Example:

In the 2011 masterpiece, Drive, one of my favourite scenes, the scene where Driver and Irene first meet, is framed incredibly well (especially around 1:05). Irene occupies the left hand side of the frame, while a mirror is on the right. In the mirror, we can see a photo of Standard and Benicio, while Driver is seen through the mirror. Through the clever framing, Winding-Refn is slowly revealing the plot and conflict that will soon emerge - Irene's battle between reality and her desires. The whole scene is beautiful, from the initial attraction the audience feels through the slow panning to Irene's pining for Driver via the shots that stay on for just one or two seconds more where no dialogue is uttered between the two. A masterclass in framing.

Rule of Thirds

The Rule of Thirds dictates that if you were to divide a TV screen into thirds using lines, where these lines intersected are the points where the eyes are most naturally attracted to. Therefore, many filmmakers implement this rule into their films and place the most important things in the shot on these intersecting lines. 

Example:

In the Oscar winning 2010 film, The King's Speech, the Rule of Thirds is used. The microphone is the subject of the scene and so when we split the screen in accordance with the Rule of Thirds, it always occupies where the lines overlap, and so we are more drawn to it, almost engrossed by it.

Depth of Field 

In laymen’s terms, depth of field refers to the part of your shot that is in focus. If all or most of the shot is in focus, you have a deep depth of field (also called deep focus.) If only a part of your shot is in focus, you have a shallow depth of field (also called shallow focus.)


Example - Shallow Focus: 


In this still shot taken from Drive, a film you're probably well aware of in this blog, shallow focus is used. This is from the opening scene, where Driver is on a heist, waiting on his clients to return from a bank robbery.This is done so that the audience is focused on Driver, heightening the intensity of the scene that is created by time running short on the clients to get to the car. 

Example - Deep Focus:

How can you even mention deep focus without mentioning Citizen Kane in the same sentence? Welles employed the deep focus shot throughout Citizen Kane. In this shot, Kane is still a boy and under the custody of Mrs. Kane. We see Kane through a window pane throwing snowballs while Mr. Thatcher talks over a deal with the parents of Charles Kane. Normally,  the conversation would be the subject of the shot; however, by employing the deep focus shot, we are made to sympathise with Kane as he has become the subject of the conversation, which the deep focus shot helps to convey.

Focus Pulls 

The focus pull  is a creative camera technique in which you change focus during a shot. Usually this means adjusting the focus from one subject to another.

Example:

Camera Angles and Movement

High Angle

A high angle shot is a shot which is the audience is looking down upon the subject, with the camera positioned above them.

Example:

In the original 1954 Gojira, a high angle shot is used (from Godzilla's POV) while he is wrecking the city. This is used to illustrate to the audience how insignificant and tiny the city and buildings are to the sheer might and size of Godzilla.



Canted Angle/ Dutch Tilt

A Canted Angle shot is one in which the camera has been deliberately tilted for dramatic effect, for example, confusion, drunkenness, madness, uneasiness, dreaming etc.

Low Angle

A Low Angle Shot is a shot which shows the subject from below, making it seem bigger or more prominent on camera.

Example:

In the famous speech scene in Citizen Kane, Kane appears to literally grow bigger as his ego increases and increases until it reaches its peak. What is truly beautiful about this scene, however, is the high angle shot that immediately follows once he has left the podium. This conveys a sense that perhaps Charles Foster Kane is not as important as he once thought he was and that his fame and lifestyle would not last forever.

Panning Shot

+A pan is a horizontal camera movement in which the camera moves left and right, usually following a subject. John Carpenter is a huge fan of panning shots, as well as Paul Thomas Anderson and Akira Kurosawa who is largely deemed the "Master of Movement" due to his precise onscreen fluid and timed movement of his characters. 





Tilt

A Tilt is a technique in which the camera is placed on a stationery object and rotated in a vertical plane.

Tracking Shot

The Tracking Shot is used very often by Martin Scorcese. It is a shot that follows the subjects and the camera is mounted on wheels. It can be used for a multitude of effects, from creating a dreamlike tone with slow tracking movements or creating a wild, frantic tone with excessive, quick camera movements.

Example:



 Dolly

A dolly is a cart which travels along tracks. The camera is mounted on the dolly and records the shot as it moves. Dolly shots have a number of applications and can provide very dramatic footage and are very often used in war films. 

Crane Shot

A Crane Shot is a shot which is taken by a camera on a crane or jib. The most obvious uses are to view the actors from above or to move up and away from them, a common way of ending a movie. It adds a sense of completeness to the film and the characters. 

Steadicam Shot

Steadicam is a brand of image stabiliser used in the film industry, however it has become known over the years as a complete shot type. It is used very often by Kubrick and is very iconic in any of his films. However, Sukurov's Russian Ark is the only film to be filmed completely in one single Steadicam shot. (see below)


Handheld

A handheld shot is one taken from a handheld camera. Used often in horror, found footage films due to its cheapness and immersing nature. Has become overused as all hell, and I am fed up with found footage horror films *cough*BlumHouse*cough*

Example:

Below I have included the rare instance of a good, interesting, fresh found footage film. Creep (2015) really employed the found footage genre in an unnerving way that made an eerie amount of sense. Go see it if you haven't already.




Zoom

Zooming in film is used very rarely, e xcept in 70s films. Many filmmakers choose not to zoom in with the camera, instead preferring to go the more natural way of the dolly shot, simulating the viewer getting closer to the action, rather than "zooming" in with his eyes, which is unnatural and takes viewers out of the experience.

Example:

Limitless used the zoom technique in a fascinating and original way. Multiple locations were zoomed in on and edited together to make it look like  a "Limitless" zoom.


Reverse Zoom

Cam Shot - Redux

Mid Shot:

The Mid Shot shows some of the subject in more detail while still showing the audience enough for them to feel they are looking at the whole subject, for example, if you are having a conversation with someone, their lower half is unnecessary and so that is not in shot.

Example:

In Guy Ritchie's 2009 film, "Sherlock Holmes", a mid shot is combined with a slight low angle shot to show how Holmes has just taken control of the situation, but that he is not in the clear yet. 

Wide Shot:

A Shot in which the subject takes up the whole height of the shot, or at least as much as comfortably possible. Often used to establish a cast (see example) or create a sense of space within a shot.

Example:

Quentin Tarantino's "Reservoir Dogs" opening credits make use of a wide shot to comfortably and naturally (as well as stylishly) establish the main cast, before using close up shots to introduce each individual character.

Two-Shot:

A Two Shot is a shot which features two subjects. This shot type is often used in interviews.



Aerial Shot:

Aerial Shots are when the shot is taken from above the subject - often used to establish a location.

Example;

In the opening credits of one of my favourite films, Drive, the neon-bathed city of LA is established and introduced to the audience. This is where the viewer's experience begins and ends, and the city is almost a character in and of itself. This whole film is beautifully shot and I urge anyone reading to give it a watch, as it totally deserves your time.



POV Shot:

A POV shot is a shot in which it is shot from the character's perspective. Often used in horror films to show the victim running from the murderer, it can be used to build tension (in horror films) or to simply give the audience a closer, more personal look into a character's actions and life.

Example:

In Spielberg's classic "Jaws", a POV shot is used in a rather unorthodox way - shot from the point of view of a shark. This works incredibly well as as the "shark" approaches the lady swimming in the water, the audience knows the inevitable outcome of this shot is, while the swimmer is blissfully unaware of her impending doom. This POV shot, unlike a lot of slashers, employs dramatic irony to further fuel the sense of dread and tension that the audience feel. This iconic shot certainly cemented the film into the cinematic hall of fame.


Over The Shoulder Shot

This shot is framed from behind a person who is looking at the subject. The person facing the subject should usually occupy about 1/3 of the frame.This shot helps to establish the position of each person, and get the feel of looking at one person from the other's point of view.

Example:

In one of my favourite films from 2014, "The Guest", an Over The Shoulder Shot is used just before a fight breaks out. This is used effectively as it lets us know Luke's reaction to the unfolding situation, while building tension by keeping David in shot. 

Camera Shots

Extreme Long Shot

An extreme long shot is a shot which is taken for a great distance from the subject and is used to add context to a shot.

Example:

In one of my all time favourite films, David Lean's 1962 masterpiece Lawrence of Arabia, an extreme long shot is used to introduce Omar Sharif's character as he slowly approaches the well where Lawrence stands. This is used effectively as it creates a sense of mystery, intrigue and danger within the audience, mirroring how Lawrence feels in his situation.

Close Up

A close up is a shot which focusses tightly on the subject of the shot.

Example:

In the 1967 masterpiece (again, one of my favourite films), a close up shot is used at the end of the film, (SPOILERS) after Ben crashes Elaine's wedding and they run off together. This is a genius way to end the film, as the whole film focuses on rebellion against society and both characters being under pressure by their parents (and by extension, the society in which they live). At the end of the film, they have realised the gravity of their situation and how they are not truly happy, and that they are only together because of their desire to rebel - a point beautifully shown by the smiles fading from both characters' faces as the melancholy tune of Simon and Garfunkle's "Sound of Silence" begins to play. This shot is certainly one of cinema's truly iconic ones, and has cemented the film as one that will be remembered for years to come.

Medium Shot

A Medium Shot is a shot taken from a medium distance. The subject can be in full or partial detail.

Example:

In the classic Hitchcock film Psycho, a series of medium shots are used when Arbogast first approaches the House. This is done effectively as it gives us a complete overview of the situation that he is about to walk into, as well as creating distance between him and the audience, leading to a sense of dread, which combined with the haunting score, unnerves the audience.

Long Shot

A long shot is a shot taken from a greater distance than a medium shot but not as far away as an extreme long shot, so that people may appear as indistinct shapes.

Example:

In Jim Jarmusch’s 2013 gothic vampire film, Only Lovers Left Alive, a long shot is used here to show and establish to the audience the gothic ruins of Detroit. Detroit as a city, as well as a character, is explored and developed by Jarmusch and so it is important that the audience is well acquainted with the city and what it embodies and represents throughout the film.